Conditioned Place Preference is a way of finding out what animals want.

(A) The animal's preference for being in one place or another is measured both before and after its experiences in the two places. If there is a shift in where the animal chooses to spend its time for the reward, this suggests that it liked the experience and is trying to repeat it. 1

(B) Researchers train them to associate one place with an experience such as food or a loud noise and another place with something completely different, usually where nothing happens. The two places are made obviously different to make it as easy as possible for the animal to associate each place with what happened to it there. 0

(C) Conversely, if it now avoids the place the stimulus appeared and starts to prefer the place it did not experience it, then this suggests that it found the stimulus unpleasant. For example, mice with cancer show a preference for the place where they have been given morphine, a drug used to relieve pain, rather than where they have received saline whereas healthy mice developed no such preference. This suggests that the mice with cancer wanted the morphine. 2

Near the equator, many species of bird breed all year round.

(A) This is because their reproductive system shrinks, which helps flying birds save weight. The main exception to this rule are nomadic desert species. These can initiate their breeding cycle within days of rain. It's for making the most of the sudden breeding opportunity. 1

(B) But in temperate and polar regions, the breeding seasons of birds are often sharply defined. They are triggered mainly by changes in day length. If all goes well, the outcome is that birds raise their young when the food supply is at its peak. Most birds are not simply reluctant to breed at other times but they are also physically incapable of doing so. 0

(C) Also, different species divide the breeding season up in different ways. Most seabirds raise a single brood. In warm regions, however, songbirds may raise several families in a few months. In an exceptionally good year, a pair of House Sparrows, a kind of songbird, can raise successive broods through a marathon reproductive effort. 2

One factor that may hinder creativity is unawareness of the resources required in each activity in students' learning.

(A) Often students are unable to identify the resources they need to perform the task required of them. Different resources may be compulsory for specific learning tasks, and recognizing them may simplify the activity's performance. 0

(B) It means preparation is vital for the students to succeed, and it may be about human and financial resources such as laboratory technicians, money to purchase chemicals, and equipment for their learning where applicable. Even if some of the resources required for a task may not be available, identifying them in advance may help students' creativity. It may even lead to changing the topic, finding alternative resources, and other means. 2

(C) For example, it may be that students desire to conduct some experiments in their projects. There must be a prior investigation of whether the students will have access to the laboratory, equipment, and chemicals required for the experiment. 1

All translators feel some pressure from the community of readers for whom they are doing their work.

(A) Even when the scene of translation consists of just one person with a pen, paper, and the book that is being translated, or even when it is just one person translating orally for another, that person's linguistic knowledge arises from lots of other texts and other conversations. And then his or her idea of the translation's purpose will be influenced by the expectations of the person or people it is for. In both these senses every translation is a crowd translation. 2

(B) And all translators arrive at their interpretations in dialogue with other people. The English poet Alexander Pope had pretty good Greek, but when he set about translating Homer's Iliad in the early 18th century he was not on his own. 0

(C) He had Greek commentaries to refer to, and translations that had already been done in English, Latin, and French ─ and of course he had dictionaries. Translators always draw on more than one source text. 1

Some people argue that there is a single, logically consistent concept known as reading that can be neatly set apart from everything else people do with books.

(A) Consequently, efforts to distinguish reading from nonreading are destined to fail because there is no agreement on what qualifies as reading in the first place. The more one tries to figure out where the border lies between reading and not-reading, the more edge cases will be found to stretch the term's flexible boundaries. 1

(B) Thus, it is worth attempting to collect together these exceptional forms of reading into a single forum, one highlighting the challenges faced by anyone wishing to establish the boundaries where reading begins and ends. The attempt moves toward an understanding of reading as a spectrum that is expansive enough to accommodate the distinct reading activities. 2

(C) Is reading really that simple? The most productive way to think about reading is as a loosely related set of behaviors that belong together owing to family resemblances, as Ludwig Wittgenstein used the phrase, without having in common a single defining trait. 0

Weber's law concerns the perception of difference between two stimuli.

(A) When a sound is very loud, to tell that another sound is even louder, it has to be much louder. Thus, Weber's law means that it is harder to distinguish between two samples when those samples are larger or stronger levels of the stimuli. 2

(B) Therefore, the Just-noticeable difference (JND) varies as a function of the strength of the signals. For example, the JND is greater for very loud noises than it is for much more quiet sounds. When a sound is very weak, we can tell that another sound is louder, even if it is barely louder. 1

(C) It suggests that we might not be able to detect a 1-mm difference when we are looking at lines 466 mm and 467 mm in length, but we may be able to detect a 1-mm difference when we are comparing a line 2 mm long with one 3 mm long. Another example of this principle is that we can detect 1 candle when it is lit in an otherwise dark room. But when 1 candle is lit in a room in which 100 candles are already burning, we may not notice the light from this candle. 0

Any new resource (e.g., a new airport, a new mall) always opens with people benefiting individually by sharing a common resource (e.g., the city or state budget).

(A) What makes the "tragedy of commons" tragic is the crash dynamic ─ the destruction or degeneration of the common resource's ability to regenerate itself. 2

(B) If the new resource cannot be expanded or provided with additional space, it becomes a problem, and you cannot solve the problem on your own, in isolation from your fellow drivers or walkers or competing users. The total activity on this new resource keeps increasing, and so does individual activity; but if the dynamic of common use and overuse continues too long, both begin to fall after a peak, leading to a crash. 1

(C) Soon, at some point, the amount of traffic grows too large for the "commons" to support. Traffic jams, overcrowding, and overuse lessen the benefits of the common resource for everyone ─ the tragedy of the commons! 0

Theoretically, our brain would have the capacity to store all experiences throughout life, reaching the quality of a DVD.

(A) The brain, rather than focusing on the details of visualization, creates and stores general patterns that allow for consistent recognition across diverse circumstances. This ability to match what we see with general visual memory patterns serves as an effective mechanism for optimizing brain performance and saving energy. The brain, being naturally against unnecessary effort, constantly seeks to simplify and generalize information to facilitate the cognitive process. 2

(B) When we observe a face, the visual image captured by the eyes is highly variable, depending on the point of view, lighting conditions and other contextual factors. Nevertheless, we are able to recognize the face as the same, maintaining the underlying identity. 1

(C) However, this theoretical capacity is offset by the energy demand associated with the process of storing and retrieving information in memory. As a result, the brain develops efficient strategies, becoming dependent on shortcuts. 0

Where scientific research is concerned, explanatory tales are expected to adhere closely to experimental data and to illuminate the regular and predictable features of experience.

(A) They construct frameworks for systematically chosen data in order to provide a consistent and meaningful explanation of what is observed. Such constructions lead us to imagine specific kinds of subject matter in particular sorts of relations, and the storylines they inspire will prove more effective for analyzing some features of experience over others. 1

(B) When we neglect the creative contributions of such scientific imagination and treat models and interpretive explanations as straightforward facts ─ even worse, as facts including all of reality ─ we can blind ourselves to the limitations of a given model and fail to note its potential for misunderstanding a situation to which it ill applies. 2

(C) However, this paradigm sometimes conceals the fact that theories are deeply loaded with creative elements that shape the construction of research projects and the interpretations of evidence. Scientific explanations do not just relate a chronology of facts. 0

We encounter contrary claims about the relation of literature to action.

(A) Theorists have maintained that literature encourages solitary reading and reflection as the way to engage with the world and thus counters the social and political activities that might produce social change. At best it encourages detachment or appreciation of complexity, and at worst passivity and acceptance of what is. 0

(B) By promoting identification across divisions of class, gender, and race, books may promote a fellowship that discourages struggle; but they may also produce a keen sense of injustice that makes progressive struggles possible. Historically, works of literature are credited with producing change: Uncle Tom's Cabin, a best-seller in its day, helped create a revulsion against slavery that made possible the American Civil War. 2

(C) But on the other hand, literature has historically been seen as dangerous: it promotes the questioning of authority and social arrangements. Plato banned poets from his ideal republic because they could only do harm, and novels have long been credited with making people dissatisfied with their lives and eager for something new. 1

According to Hobbes, man is not a being who can act morally in spite of his instinct to protect his existence in the state of nature.

(A) Moreover, since society is not a natural phenomenon and there is no natural force bringing people together, what will bring them together as a society is not mutual affection according to Hobbes. It is, rather, mutual fear of men's present and future that assembles them, since the cause of fear is a common drive among people in the state of nature. 2

(B) Hence, the only place where morality and moral liberty will begin to find an application begins in a place where a sovereign power, namely the state, emerges. Hobbes thus describes the state of nature as a circumstance in which man's life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short". 0

(C) It means when people live without a general power to control them all, they are indeed in a state of war. In other words, Hobbes, who accepted that human beings are not social and political beings in the state of nature, believes that without the power human beings in the state of nature are "antisocial and rational based on their selfishness". 1

There is research that supports the idea that cognitive factors influence the phenomenology of the perceived world.

(A) Other objects were presented that are not usually associated with red, such as a mushroom or a bell. However, all the figures were made out of the same red-orange cardboard. Participants then had to match the figure to a background varying from dark to light red. 1

(B) Delk and Fillenbaum asked participants to match the color of figures with the color of their background. Some of the figures depicted objects associated with a particular color. These included typically red objects such as an apple, lips, and a symbolic heart. 0

(C) They had to make the background color match the color of the figures. The researchers found that red-associated objects required more red in the background to be judged a match than did the objects that are not associated with the color red. This implies that the cognitive association of objects to color influences how we perceive that color. 2

One of the best pieces of advice I got when my son was really little was from his nursery school teacher, who told parents to pretend that we liked bugs and worms.

(A) Even if you don't love your job, you can probably say that you love having one. It's important to relay the idea that a job is something to take pride in. 2

(B) The reason: my son's class was doing an earth science unit, and she had found that almost all kids love to dig and play with the dirt. That is, until, at pickup time, their parents scream, "Ewwwww, worms are gross! "- which often squashes their interest in biology. 0

(C) Kids get many of their early ideas and prejudices from us. So how you feel about your own work - and how you talk about it in front of your kid - affects how she views work in general. If you enjoy your job, say so. 1

Though there may be no perfect design, we can still speak of good design.

(A) We can admire the brilliant solution, appreciate the ingenious device, and enjoy the clever gadget. Imperfect as they may be, they represent the triumph of the human mind over the world of things, and the achievements of accomplished designers uplift the spirit of us all. 0

(B) We applaud what he did achieve, with the expectation that someday he or some other athlete may design a better pole or vaulting technique and so set a new record. That is the nature of design. 2

(C) The pole-vaulter who sets a new record is no less of a champion because he does not clear the next bar height. He had conceived and executed his run, the planting of his pole, and the arc of his body in the best way that he could for that meet, and for the time being, at least, his best is the best. 1

Instant and early conclusions, solutions, suggestions, and statements about "how we solved that in the past" are the enemies of good problem solving.

(A) The mentally agile survivor paradoxically puts more energy into playing with the problem mentally - defining more creatively. Voluminous research on problem solving shows conclusively that the more effort one puts into the front end of the problem-solving process, the easier it is to come up with a good solution. 1

(B) This doesn't mean being inactive. It means being highly cognitively active in defining the problem more rigorously. 2

(C) The good is, most often, the enemy of the better. Defining the problem and taking action occur almost simultaneously for most people. 0

Many of the technological innovations with the most profound impact on human society originated in settlements along trade routes, where a rich mix of different cultures ignited new ideas.

(A) Paper traveled along trade routes from China to Baghdad, where technology was developed for its mass production. This technology then migrated to Europe, as did water-based ink from China, which was modified by Gutenberg to become oil-based ink. 1

(B) For example, the printing press, which helped spread knowledge to all social classes, was invented by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440. This invention relied on several innovations from China, including paper and ink. 0

(C) We have the cross-fertilization of diverse cultures to thank for the printing press, and the same can be said for other important inventions. 2

When you watch a movie first on a large screen in the theater and then on a small video screen, do you see giants on the large screen and Lilliputians on the small screen?

(A) So long as we know by experience how large or small an object should be, we perceive it as its normal size regardless of screen size, relative image size, or perceived object distance. 2

(B) Of course not. 0

(C) As with color constancy, which makes us see colors as uniform despite variations, our perception is guided by size constancy, which means we perceive people and their environments as normal sized regardless of whether they appear in a long shot or a close-up on a large movie screen or a small video screen, or whether we are relatively close to or far away from the screen. 1

Charles Sanders Peirce (pronounced "purse"), the founder of pragmatism, America's only unique philosophy, was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

(A) His father, Benjamin, was the leading mathematician of the day, and he took a special interest in his son's intellectual development. Under his direction Charles was reading college-level material, including logic, at age twelve, and Benjamin would challenge the boy with highly complex problems that Charles would solve on his own. 0

(B) This arrogance is likely the main reason Peirce lived a difficult life. He died in poverty at age seventy-four in the then-isolated town of Milford, Pennsylvania. 2

(C) Although his most significant education came from his father, Charles went on to attend Harvard University, where he received a Bachelor of Science in chemistry in 1863. Yet, he was not a successful student (he usually placed in the lower quarter of his class), partly because he showed scorn for his professors as inadequately qualified to teach him. 1

If 100 people are interviewed about, say, whether they like a particular brand of peanut butter and it is found that 38 do, we are told that 38 percent of people like that brand.

(A) Of course this does not mean that everyone in the world was asked, but the researcher assumes that if 38 percent of the sample liked that brand then it is likely to reflect the opinion of people generally. However, crucial to this assumption is the size of the sample. 0

(B) Generally the larger the sample the more reliable the survey is likely to be. If the study doesn't say how many people were involved, be suspicious. 2

(C) If you asked just two people if they liked that brand of peanut butter and one did, that would be weak evidence that 50 percent of people liked it. You couldn't assume that the views of two people would match the whole population! 1

Take a close look at a computer chip sometime.

(A) Today, some kids have more friends around the world that they've "met" via the Internet than they do in their local neighborhoods and schools. That's because they have grown up with technologies of interactive communication we never imagined. 2

(B) You'll notice that it resembles a dense city in miniature, perhaps symbolizing our move toward an ever-more-compact and interactive world. In the same way that microchips are increasing in power by providing more communication pathways, we are seeing the power of direct people- to-people communication, and the collapse of traditional bureaucratic hierarchies. 0

(C) This frees us to communicate in far more, and more profound, ways. For example, a century ago, few people traveled outside their own county. 1

Research from New York University and Tel Aviv University has shown that you're more inclined to think creatively when you imagine yourself removed from a problem or situation.

(A) After all, you might not act a certain way, but a stranger could. Imagining how a stranger might act makes it possible for you to think of more radical and imaginative ideas than you might be used to, simply because it's not you acting them out, but someone else you're watching. 2

(B) Imagining yourself in the mind of somebody else, for example, is a simple way to trick your brain into seeing things in new ways. The act of people watching is one way to do just that. 0

(C) As you watch strangers, you can imagine how they might handle a situation. That thought process allows for ideas that would otherwise be unrealistic or limited by your personal way of thinking. 1

For science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) classes, empathy has a natural place.

(A) "What is his situation like, and how can we make it better for him?" They use their insights from those reflections to address solution-based thinking. Through various processes (brainstorming, inquiry, etc. 1

(B) It is an integral part of teaching design thinking, which centers on applying creativity to realize and solve problems. In order to imagine or identify challenges to be addressed, students have to put themselves into the lives and circumstances of others. They have to ask themselves, "What is this person feeling?" 0

(C) ), they identify a specific way they can solve the problem. They design and test their prototype, still thinking about the ultimate user and making modifications with the user in mind. 2

Low-productivity firms are often located in industries where the demand is stagnant or falling.

(A) Growing industries attract bright aggressive managers who want to advance rapidly with their companies. In dying industries promotions are few and far between. 1

(B) This is partly due to the fact that new plants do not need to be built to meet new demands, but it is also due to a human problem. Dying industries simply cannot be managed as efficiently as growing industries. 0

(C) Smart young managers know that they should be avoided. Who wants a job where the basic problem is to decide who to fire each day and where new, exciting investments are not happening? In a dying industry everyone is out to protect what they have rather than to build something better. 2

There is an important reason to attract pollinators that has little to do with their pollination services and a lot to do with the fact that they are part of a food chain.

(A) Lizards in the mulch eat a range of garden pests and might end up being eaten by magpies. 2

(B) They are in turn prey for birds, frogs or lizards. The honeyeaters, for example, that pollinate our flowers while feeding on the nectar within them, also eat insects from under the bark of trees and might themselves become prey for larger birds. 1

(C) In the natural world everything eats something else in order to survive. Those same insects that pollinate our flowers can also prey on a range of pest insects and help keep them under control. 0

In an ideal world all arguments would be decided on their merits and not their presentation.

(A) Advertising is all based on persuading you to buy a product that you would not otherwise buy, and most advertising is the triumph of spin over substance. Many people have won arguments, based on bad grounds, because they've made their points well. 1

(B) But we aren't in an ideal world. There's no getting away from the fact that presentation of an argument is crucial. 0

(C) And many people with good points have lost their argument because they failed to make their case attractively. 2

To illustrate both the advantages and disadvantages of an even partly iconographic writing, the Chinese script provides a good example.

(A) Simply because as a concept script Chinese does not depend on the spoken language. This made it, throughout Chinese history, an ideal means of communication in an empire whose people spoke a large number of different dialects yet were all ruled by the same centre. 2

(B) Why then has the Chinese script been so successful, lasting, apart from comparatively few minor remodelings, well over 4,000 years? 1

(C) There is the large number of signs: 3,000 to 4,000 characters for everyday use, 50,000 for scholars studying the classical texts (as compared to the Latin alphabet which now uses some 26 signs). 0

There has been a lot of interest in the idea of emotional intelligence.

(A) Many people are not in touch with their emotions and feel incapable of expressing their feelings. The results everywhere are obvious and catastrophic. In part, this is the legacy of the academic illusion. 0

(B) Creativity is not a purely intellectual process. It is enriched by other capacities and in particular by feelings, intuition and by a playful imagination. 2

(C) Conventional education separates intelligence from feeling, and concentrates only on particular aspects of the first. This is why being highly educated is no guarantee of emotional intelligence. Yet there is an intimate relationship between knowing and feeling: how we feel is directly related to what we know and think. 1

The importance of experimental learning depends strongly on the nature of the activity: there are high-risk activities in which the agents have to limit their experiments because they could conflict with the "normal performance" that has to be achieved.

(A) By contrast, a teacher can carry out educational experiments and a craftsman can look for new solutions to a particular problem during the production process. Thus, explicitly cognitive learning consists of a series of planned but weakly controlled experiments. 2

(B) Airline pilots or surgeons cannot learn in this way. Similarly, people managing a marshalling yard or regulating the flow of subway train traffic will avoid any type of experiment in the normal course of their work. 0

(C) The error element of their professional trial-and-error is rarely consequential at least insofar as outcomes can be rapidly assessed and methods adapted. The fact of being able to carry out this type of learning depends on the nature of the risk and the immediacy (or delay) of the effect. 1

Blocking can occur in diverse situations.

(A) In surveys that probe different types of memory failures in everyday life, blocking on the names of familiar people invariably emerges at or near the top of the list. Name blocking is especially troublesome for older adults: the single biggest complaint of cognitive difficulties by adults past age fifty - by far - involves problems remembering the names of familiar people. 2

(B) Engaged in casual conversation, you block on a word in the middle of a sentence. Stage actors fear those relatively rare but embarrassing moments in a scene when they block on their lines. 0

(C) And students are afraid of the awful realization that they have blocked on an exam answer they studied diligently, and might even recall spontaneously after finishing the test. But blocking occurs most often with people's names. 1

A date or time by which the goal is to be accomplished should be specified.

(A) Similar increases in activity occur toward the end of the trading period each day on the New York Stock Exchange. Think of your own behavior when a test date is rapidly approaching, and you begin to increase your preparation activities. 2

(B) The presence or absence of a deadline is a critical attribute of any goal-setting exercise. Deadlines stimulate action, and the closer the deadline, the more motivation to act. 0

(C) The absence of a deadline makes the urgency of the goal indefinite and hence less motivating. For example, there are a disproportionately large number of plays during the last few minutes of a football game because the team that is behind faces a deadline for scoring more points or losing the game. 1

When you are busy creating a new habit, there is a pitfall you should know about, because if you don't, you will fail again and again and again.

(A) Let me illustrate it with an example. Suppose you want to learn a new move in tennis. In the beginning, will you get better or worse results with your new move? You will get worse results of course. So the result curve will go down and only after a certain amount of time will it become level and then your results may improve beyond your old habit. 0

(B) You have been busy with the new habit for a while. The results are getting worse all the time. You have to put more energy into it than before. What is your conclusion? 2

(C) Okay, Now back to the starting point: the new move, will it cost more or less energy than the old move? It will cost more of course, it being a new move. After a while you get used to it, it becomes a habit, and it will cost less energy. So now let's look at the area between the downward curve of the results and the upward curve of the energy. Suppose you are at point 'X'. 1

Conversely, if it now avoids the place the stimulus appeared and starts to prefer the place it did not experience it, then this suggests that it found the stimulus unpleasant.

This is because their reproductive system shrinks, which helps flying birds save weight.

For example, it may be that students desire to conduct some experiments in their projects.

And then his or her idea of the translation's purpose will be influenced by the expectations of the person or people it is for.

Thus, it is worth attempting to collect together these exceptional forms of reading into a single forum, one highlighting the challenges faced by anyone wishing to establish the boundaries where reading begins and ends.

Therefore, the Just-noticeable difference (JND) varies as a function of the strength of the signals.

Soon, at some point, the amount of traffic grows too large for the "commons" to support.

However, this theoretical capacity is offset by the energy demand associated with the process of storing and retrieving information in memory.

However, this paradigm sometimes conceals the fact that theories are deeply loaded with creative elements that shape the construction of research projects and the interpretations of evidence.

Theorists have maintained that literature encourages solitary reading and reflection as the way to engage with the world and thus counters the social and political activities that might produce social change.

In other words, Hobbes, who accepted that human beings are not social and political beings in the state of nature, believes that without the power human beings in the state of nature are "antisocial and rational based on their selfishness".

However, all the figures were made out of the same red-orange cardboard.

That is, until, at pickup time, their parents scream, "Ewwwww, worms are gross!

For example, the printing press, which helped spread knowledge to all social classes, was invented by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440.

Yet, he was not a successful student (he usually placed in the lower quarter of his class), partly because he showed scorn for his professors as inadequately qualified to teach him.

However, crucial to this assumption is the size of the sample.

For example, a century ago, few people traveled outside their own county.

Imagining yourself in the mind of somebody else, for example, is a simple way to trick your brain into seeing things in new ways.

This is partly due to the fact that new plants do not need to be built to meet new demands, but it is also due to a human problem.

The honeyeaters, for example, that pollinate our flowers while feeding on the nectar within them, also eat insects from under the bark of trees and might themselves become prey for larger birds.

But we aren't in an ideal world.

Why then has the Chinese script been so successful, lasting, apart from comparatively few minor remodelings, well over 4,000 years?

This is why being highly educated is no guarantee of emotional intelligence.

By contrast, a teacher can carry out educational experiments and a craftsman can look for new solutions to a particular problem during the production process.

But blocking occurs most often with people's names.

For example, there are a disproportionately large number of plays during the last few minutes of a football game because the team that is behind faces a deadline for scoring more points or losing the game.

After a while you get used to it, it becomes a habit, and it will cost less energy.